Water Purification

WATER TESTING:

REASONS FOR TESTINGCERTAIN PARAMETERS

TEST PARAMETER	REASONS FOR TESTING
Alkalinity (Alkaphot)	Natural and treated waters may contain a variety of dissolved alkaline substances such as carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, and, to a lesser extent, borates, phosphates and silicates. In waters of neutral pH, the alkalinity derives from the presence of bicarbonates.Total Alkalinity is an important test in determining the aggressiveness or scale tendency of the water. If the total alkalinity is low the water may be aggressive and cause corrosion to pipework and structures. If the total alkalinity is high, the water may more readily promote scale formation. Alkalinity control is therefore an important part of many water treatment programmes.
Alkalinity M and P	Quantitatively, alkalinity is the capacity of the water to react with acid to a specific pH end point. The value obtained will depend on the indicator used. Two measures of alkalinity are conventionally applied - Alkaphot M (Alkalinity to methyl orange) and Alkaphot P (alkalinity to phenolphthalein).Alkalinity is an important test parameter in a number of industrial water uses, notably in boiler water treatment. Boilers and steam raising plants are normally operated under conditions of high alkalinity to minimise corrosion. Monitoring of alkalinity is an important control test.
Aluminium	Aluminium sulphate is widely used as a coagulant in drinking water treatment. The determination of aluminium (residual alum) is usually required for the control of alum coagulation and filtration processes at water works.Aluminium salts are found in natural waters; levels are reported to be increasing particularly in areas affected by acid rain. High aluminium levels can be toxic to fish and aquatic life. Aluminium testing is therefore necessary for environmental control and for fish farms etc.
Ammonia	Ammonia occurs as a breakdown product of nitrogenous materials in natural waters. It is also found in domestic effluents and certain industrial waste waters. Ammonia is harmful to fish and other forms of aquatic life, and the ammonia level must be carefully controlled in water used for fish farms and aquariums. Ammonia tests are routinely applied for pollution control on effluent and waste waters, and for the monitoring of drinking water supplies.The Palintest ammonia test provides a simple test for measuring ammonia (ammoniacal nitrogen) over the range 0 - 1.0 mg/l N.
Boron	Boron is an essential element for plant growth. However, some crops can be highly sensitive to boron at other than very low levels. For this reason, the boron level in irrigation water should be checked. Borates are widely used in the industrial processes and boron can occur in effluent discharges. For drinking water supplies, the guide level prescribed under the EC regulations is 0 - 2.5 mg/l
Bromine	Bromine and bromine-release compounds are used for the disinfection of swimming pool water, and in many other water treatment systems. Accurate measurement of the bromine residual is an essential aspect of control of these processes.The bromine level can be expressed in terms of free bromine, combined bromine or total bromine residuals. However, free and combined bromine are both considered powerful disinfectants and it is not normally necessary to differentiate between the two forms. For the majority of applications, the measurement of the total residual is sufficient.
Calcium Hardness (Calcicol)	Calcium Hardness is caused by the presence of calcium ions in the water. Calcium salts can be readily precipitated from water and high levels of calcium hardness tend to promote scale formation in the water system. Calcium hardness is an important control test in industrial water systems such as boilers and steam raising plants, and for swimming pools.The Palintest calcicol test provides a simple method of determining calcium hardness over the range 0 - 500 mg/l CaCO3
Chlorine (Chloridol)	The Palintest Chloridol test provides a simple method for measuring chloride salt levels. There are many applications in water technology that require determination of chlorides. These include the measurement of low levels of chloride to determine the extent of carry-over in boiler waters; and measurement of high chloride levels for testing sea water or determining the saltiness of brackish waters. A further application for checking swimming pools where salt has been artificially added to simulate sea water bathing, or where this is necessary, for the operation of certain types of electrolytic hypochlorite generator.The test can be used for measuring these widely different chlorides concentrations by varying the sample size selected.
Chlorine	Chlorine and chlorine-release compounds are widely used for the disinfection of drinking water and swimming pools, for the control of micro-biological growth in cooling water, and in many other water treatment systems. Accurate measurement of the chlorine residual is an essential aspect of the control of these chlorination processes.The chlorine level can be expressed in terms of free chlorine, combined chlorine, or total chlorine residuals. For the majority of applications, measurement of free chlorine is the most important. The Palintest DPD method provides a simple means of measuring free, combined and total chlorine residuals over the range 0 - 5 mg/l
Chlorine HR	Chlorine and chlorine-release compounds are widely used for the disinfection or sterilisation of water distribution systems and pipework, plant and equipment in food processing and pharmaceutical factories, and similar applications. The chlorine levels used in these applications are higher than those normally applied for the simple disinfection of water. Accurate measurement of the chlorine level is necessary to ensure it is sufficient for the intended use. The Palintest Chlorine HR test provides a simple means of measuring total chlorine over the range 0 - 250 mg/l.
Chromium (Chromicol)	Chromium may be present in certain industrial waste waters, such as those from the tanning, plating and coating industries. Chromium may occur in hexavalent form as chromates and dichromates, or in trivalent form as chromium salts. In water supplies, hexavalent chromium is a particularly objectionable constituent. Trivalent chromium, although relatively inert, is also regarded as undesirable.The Palintest Chromicol test provides a means of measuring chromium over the range 0 - 1.0 mg/l. The test is particularly useful since it can be used to differentiate between the concentrations of trivalent (CrIII) and hexavalent (CrVI) chromium present.
COD	Chemical Oxygen Demand is a vital test for assessing the quality of effluents and waste waters prior to discharge. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test predicts the oxygen requirement of the effluent and is used for monitoring and control of discharges, and for assessing treatment plant performance.The impact of an effluent on the receiving water is predicted by its oxygen demand. This is because the removal of oxygen from the natural water reduces its ability to sustain aquatic life. The COD test is therefore performed as routine in laboratories of water utilities and industrial companies.
Colour	Pure water exhibits a light blue colour when viewed in depth. This colour may be modified by the presence of organic material, typically to a yellow or brown colour. An estimate of this colour intensity is used as a means of monitoring natural and treated water.
Copper (Coppercol)	Copper occurs naturally in many waters and may also result from corrosion of pipes and fittings. The presence of copper in drinking water can give rise to discolouration or an astringent taste.Chelated copper compounds are extensively used a algicides in swimming pool water, home aquariums and other waters. Elytrolytic devices which generate silver ions are used in the purification of swimming pool water.
Calcium Hardness (Calcicol)	Calcium Hardness is caused by the presence of calcium ions in the water. Calcium salts can be readily precipitated from water and high levels of calcium hardness tend to promote scale formation in water systems. Calcium hardness is an important control test in industrial water systems such as boilers and steam raising plant; and for swimming pool waters.The Palintest Calcicol test provides a simple method of determining calcium hardness over the range 0 - 500 mg/l CaC03
Cyanuric Acid	Cyanuric acid is extensively used as a chlorine stabiliser in swimming pool water. Cyanuric acid itself may be added to the water when the pool is first filled, or may be introduced gradually through the use of chloroisocyanurate based chlorine donors. Swimming pool water treatment instructions generally recommend a cyanuric acid level within the range 30 - 200 mg/l. In some countries, a lower maximum level is recommended. The Palintest Cyanuric Acid test provides a simple method of measuring cyanuric acid levels over the range 0 - 200 mg/l
Fluoride	Fluoride occurs naturally in some ground waters and is naturally introduced into drinking water for the prevention of tooth decay. Excessive amounts of fluoride are however objectionable and can cause tooth discolouration.The Palintest Fluoride test provides  a simple method of monitoring fluorides in natural waters, and for the control of fluoridation plant at water works.
Hardness (Hardicol)	Water hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium salts. High levels of hardness prevent the formation of lather with soap and can cause scaling in water systems - particularly boilers, heat exchangers and steam generating plant. Hardness is an important control in a wide variety of applications.The Palintest Hardness test provides a simple method of checking water hardness over the range 0 - 500 mg/l CaC03
Hydrazine	Hydrazine is used as an oxygen scavenger in high pressure boilers and steam raising plant. Hydrazine is particularly advantageous in that it does not contribute solids to the boiler water.The Palintest Hydrazine test provides a simple means of measuring hydrazine levels in boiler feed water and boiler water over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l
Hydrogen Peroxide LR	Hydrogen peroxide is used in various water treatment processes. In such applications, it is important to ensure that the hydrogen peroxide level is maintained within the correct range to ensure optimum operation of the water treatment process.The Palintest Hydrogen Peroxide LR test provides a simple means of measuring Hydrogen Peroxide levels over the range 0 - 2.0 mg/l
Hydrogen Peroxide HR	Hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleach and oxidizing agent in a number of industrial processes. Applications include textile bleaching, commercial laundering and paper manufacturing. It is important in such processes to control the hydrogen peroxide level within the correct range so as to achieve the desired bleaching or oxidizing effect without causing damage to the goods under treatment. Hydrogen Peroxide is also used in swimming pool water to control algae and improve clarity.The Palintest Hydrogen Peroxide HR test provides a simple means of monitoring hydrogen peroxide levels in water over the range 0 - 100 mg/l
Iron LR	Iron occurs widely in nature and is found in many natural and treated waters. Iron is an objectionable constituent in both domestic and industrial water supplies. The presence of iron affects the taste of beverages and causes staining of laundered clothes, plumbing fittings, swimming pool surfaces and the like. The formation of insoluble iron deposits is troublesome in many industrial applications and in agricultural water uses such as drip feed irrigation. In industry, iron salts occur through corrosion of plant and equipment and from industrial processes.Iron is therefore an important test for the monitoring of natural and drinking waters, for corrosion control in industry and for the checking of effluents and waste waters. The Palintest Iron LR test provides a simple test for the determination of low levels of iron in water over the range 0 - 1 mg/. Fe. The test responds to both ferrous and ferric iron and thus gives a measure of the total iron content of the water.
Magnesium (Magnecol)	Magnesium is a widely occurring natural element and is found in most water supplies. Magnesium salts contribute to the hardness of water and higher levels of magnesium will be found therefore in hard water areas. Scale formation in heating and steam raising equipment is promoted by the presence of magnesium salts in the water. Magnesium salts do however have a lower scale forming tendency than calcium salts.The Palintest Magnecol test provides a simple means of measuring magnesium levels in water over the range 0 - 100 mg/l Mg
Manganese	Manganese-containing minerals occur widely and manganese salts are commonly found in many natural waters. Manganese is an objectionable constituent in water used for domestic purposes or industrial applications. In domestic situations, manganese will cause brown or black staining to laundry or plumbing fittings even at very low concentrations. In process applications such as paper manufacturing or textile finishing, similar staining can occur. Manganese salts may impart an astringent taste to drinking water supplies, and in swimming water applications can give an aesthetically displeasing brown coloration to the water.In most cases where manganese salts occur naturally in the water, it will be necessary to apply special methods of removal before the water can be used for domestic or industrial purposes. The Palintest Manganese test provides an extremely sensitive method of measuring low concentrations of manganese for the assessment of natural waters and the control of manganese removal plant. The test measures total manganese over the range 0 - 0.030 mg/l
Molybdate HR	Formulations containing Molybdate are used as corrosion inhibitors in industrial water treatment. In particular, Molybdate finds application in closed recirculating systems such as water heating systems and chilled water systems. Molybdate based formulations have replaced older forms of corrosion inhibitor such as chromate.When using Molybdate treatment it is necessary to control the Molybdate concentration within specified levels depending on the application involved. Moreover, since molybdates are widely used in water treatment and in industrial processes, Molybdate is an increasingly important test for effluents and industrial discharges. The Palintest Molybdate HR test provide s simple means of measuring high levels of Molybdate in industrial waters and effluents and covers the range 0 -100 mg/l MoO4
Molybdate LR	Formulations containing Molybdate are used as corrosion inhibitors in industrial water treatment. In particular, low level Molybdate treatments finds applications in cooling systems. Molybdate based formulations have replaced older forms of corrosion inhibitors.When using Molybdate treatment, it is necessary to control the Molybdate concentration within specified levels depending on the application involved. Moreover, since molybdates are widely used in water treatment and in industrial processes, Molybdate is an increasingly important test for effluents and industrial discharges. The Palintest Molybdate LR test provides a simple means of measuring low levels of Molybdate in industrial waters and effluents and covers the range 0 - 20 mg/l MoO4 (0-12 mg/l Mo).
Nickel (Nickeltest)	Nickel does not occur naturally in water but is found in many industrial waste waters, such as those from the steel and plating industries. It is considered an undesirable consituent of water and hence requires close and careful monitoring. The EC maximum available concentration for drinking water (MAC) is 0.05mg/lThe Palintest Nickeltest method provides a simple test for the determination of nickel in water over the range 0 - 10 mg/l Ni. The test responds to both Ni2+ and Ni4+ and thus gives a measure of total soluble inorganic nickel content of the water
Nitrate (Nitratest)	Nitrates are normally present in natural, drinking and waste waters. Nitrates enter water supplies from the breakdown of natural vegetation, the use of chemical fertilisers in modern agriculture and from the oxidation of nitrogen compounds in sewage effluents and industrial wastes.Nitrate is an important control test for water supplies. Drinking water containing excessive amounts of nitrates can cause methaemoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infants (blue babies). The EC has set a recommended maximum of 5.7 mg/l N (25 mg/l NO3) and an absolute maximum of 11.3 mg/l N (50 mg/l NO3) for nitrate in drinking water. The Palintest Nitratest method provides a simple test for nitrate nitrogen over the range 0 - 1 mg/l N. The test can however, be extended to cover the range 0 - 20 mg/l by a simple dilution technique.
Nitrite (Nitrocol)	Nitrates are found in natural waters as an intermediate product in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrite is harmful to fish and other forms of aquatic life and the nitrite level must be carefully controlled in water used for fish farms and aquariums. The nitrite test is also applied for pollution control in waste waters and for the monitoring of drinking water.The Palintest Nitricol test provides a simple method of measuring Nitrite Nitrogen levels over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l N. Higher levels can be determined by diluting the sample.
Nitrite (Nitriphot)	Nitrites and nitrite-based formulations are widely used for corrosion control in cooling water systems. The Palintest Nitriphot test provides a simple means of measuring nitrite for the control of such treatment products in cooling water. The test covers the range 0 - 1500 mg/l Na NO2
Organophosphate (OP)	The use of organophosphonate compounds as inhibitors in cooling systems has become widespread in recent years. It is essential; to monitor the active organophosphonate content of the cooling water to ensure the treatment is fully effective.The Palintest OP test provides a reliable means of monitoring organophosphonate levels over the range 0 - 20 mg/l PO4. The test has been developed for use with commercially available organophosphonate products such as those on amino trimethyl phosphonic acid and hydroxyethane diphosphonic acid.
Ozone	Ozone is used for the disinfection of swimming pool water, and in many other water treatment systems. In swimming pool water treatment ozone is normally introduced into the circulation system and then removed prior to the re-entry of the water to the pool. In other water treatment systems, an ozone residual may be maintained in the water. In all cases, accurate measurement of ozone residual is essential for the control of the system or to ensure that the ozone has been removed.The Palintest DPD Ozone method provides a simple means of measuring ozone residuals up to a level of 2.0 mg/l. Other disinfectants such as chlorine and bromine are frequently used in conjunction with ozone. Supplementary procedures are therefore provided for the separate determination of these residuals.
pH (Phenol Red)	pH measurement is one of the tests most frequently carried out on water and aqueous solutions. The phenol red indicator method provides a simple means of pH determination for neutral and slightly alkaline waters over the range 6.8 - 8.4 units. The Phenol Red pH test is particularly applicable to testing swimming pools and spas
Phenol (Phenoltest)	Phenols and substituted phenols may occur in natural, drinking and  industrial waste waters. Phenols are not readily removed from water by conventional water treatment processes. These compounds arise typically from oil and chemical refining, livestock dips, the breakdown of pesticides, human and animal wastes and from naturally occurring sources. Chlorination of such waters may produce odorous and objectionable tasting chlorophenols.The Palintest Phenoltest method provides a simple means of measuring the concentration of phenol and phenolic compounds present in water over the range 0 - 5.0 mg/l. The concentration of phenol determined in the test is due to unsubstituted and to ortho and meta substituted phenols. A proportion of para substituted phenols will give a positive response.
PHMB	Polyhexamethylbiguanide (PHMB) is an organic biocide used for water disinfection. PHMB based sanitisers are widely used for the treatment of swimming pool water. These sanitisers are typically sold under branded names for example Baquacil (Zeneca), Softswim (Biolab), Revosil (Mareva) and Nicosil (Nico Norge).The Palintest PHMB test provides a simple means of measuring PHMB-based sanitiser levels in swimming pool waters over the range 0 - 100 mg/l. The test is calibrated in terms of commercially available santitiser products which normally contain 20% active biocide.
Phosphate LR	Phosphates are extensively used in detergent formulations and washing powders. Phosphates are also found in widespread applications in the food processing industry and in industrial water treatment processes. Agricultural fertilizers normally contain phosphate minerals and phosphates also arise from the breakdown of plant materials and in animal wastes.Phosphates can therefore enter water courses through a variety of routes - particularly domestic and industrial effluents and run-off from agricultural land. Phosphate is an important control test from natural and drinking waters. Whilst phosphates are not generally considered harmful for human consumption, they do exhibit a complex effect on the natural environment. In particular, phosphates are associated with eutrophication of water and with rapid unwanted plant growth in rivers and lakes. Phosphates present in natural water pass through into drinking water supplies. The Palintest Phosphate LR test provides a simple method of measuring phosphate levels over the range 0 - 4 mg/l PO4. For drinking water, the EC has set a guide level of 0.5mg/l PO4 (0.4 mg/l P2 O5) and a maximum admissible concentration of 6.7 mg/l PO4 (5 mg/l P2 O5).
Phosphate HR	Phosphates are extensively used for treating water in boilers and steam raising plant. Phosphates are added to control the deposition of sediment and deposits  within the boiler. It is an essential part of the treatment programme to monitor the phosphate level to ensure this is within the correct range for deposition control.The Palintest Phosphate HR test provides a simple method of measuring phosphate levels in boiler waters over the range 0 - 100 mg/l PO4
Potassium	Potassium is an abundant natural element. However, in fresh water potassium levels are normally low. Higher levels can be observed in brackish waters. The guide level prescribed for drinking water supplies under the EC Regulations is 10 mg/lThe Palintest Potassium test provides a simple means of testing potassium levels in water over the range 0 - 12.0 mg/l
Silica	Silicon, in the form of silica, is one of the earth's most abundant elements. Silicon is found widely in natural waters as colloidal silica or soluble silicates.Silica and silicates do not normally cause any problems in water intended for domestic consumption. However, their presence is undesirable in water used in a variety of industrial applications. This is because of the tendency of such water to form a hard scale on equipment. Silica and silicate containing waters are particularly troublesome in steam generating plants such as high pressure boilers since silica can build up on turbine blades. The Palintest Silica test provides a simple means of measuring silica and silicate levels in natural treated and industrial waters over the range 0 - 4 mg/l SiO2
Silica HR	Silicon in the form of silica, is one of the earth's most abundant elements. Silicon is found widely in natural waters as colloidal silica or soluble silicates.Silica and silicates do not normally cause any problems in water intended for domestic consumption. However, their presence is undesirable in water used in a variety of industrial applications. This is because of the tendency of such water to form a hard scale on equipment. Silica and silicate containing waters are particularly troublesome in steam generating plant such as high pressure boilers since silica can build up on turbine blades. Formulations containing silicate are used in industrial water treatment as it is necessary to control the silicate within specified levels. The Palintest Silica test provides a simple means of measuring silica and silicate levels in natural, treated, industrial and cooling waters over the range 0 - 150 mg.l SiO2
Sulphate	Sulphates occur naturally in many waters. Sulphates are introduced into treated waters by the use of such chemicals as aluminium sulphate, sodium bisulphate (dry acid) and sulphuric acid. The presence of high levels of sulphate can be undesirable for a number of reasons.In industrial waters containing sulphate localized corrosion of iron, steel and aluminium in plant and pipework can occur through the action of sulphate-reducing bacteria. These bacteria, which generate sulfides, cause a characteristic pitting of the metal surface. High sulphate levels can also cause damage to concrete and cement based materials through the formulation of calcium solphoaluminate. This causes expansion and crumbling of the cement. It can affect concrete structures and pipes in water distribution systems carrying sulphate-bearing ground waters; and can attack grouting in tiled swimming pools using sodium bisulphate for pH adjustment. The Palintest Sulphate test provides a simple method of measuring sulphates over the range 0 - 200 mg/l S04. Higher levels may be determined by diluting the sample.
Sulphide	Natural waters containing dissolved hydrogen sulphide and other sulphides are found in certain parts of the world, particularly in areas having hot springs. Sulphides are constituents of many industrial wastes such as those from tanneries, gas plants and chemical works. Sulphides can be toxic to fish and aquatic life; and their presence in water supplies give rise to undesirable tastes and odours.The Palintest Sulphide test provides a simple method of measuring total available sulphide over the range 0 - 0.5 mg/l and is particularly applicable to natural and drinking waters. Higher levels such as those found in effluents and waste waters can be determined by diluting the sample.
Sulphite (Sulphitest)	Oxygen is a major cause of corrosion in boilers and steam raising plants. Sodium sulphite and catalysed sulphite formulations are extensively used as oxygen scavengers in boiler water treatment.The Palintest Sulphitest provides a simple means of measuring sulphite levels for the control of such treatments in boiler plan. The test covers the range 0 - 500 mg/l Na2 So3
Turbidity	Turbidity is an important parameter for characterising water quality. Turbidity is caused by the scattering of light by suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter. A knowledge of turbidity facilitates estimation of the concentration of undissolved substances.
Zinc	Zinc compounds are used as corrosion inhibitors in industrial cooling water systems and similar applications. Control of the zinc level is an important aspect of corrosion control in such systems. Zinc and zinc containing alloys are widely used in industry and zinc salts are commonly found in industrial effluents.The Palintest Zinc test provides a simple means of testing zinc levels over the range 0 - 4 mg/l and is suitable for testing cooling waters and industrial effluents, and for the monitoring of natural and drinking waters.